Debt-for-nature swaps are agreements whereby a portion of a developing nation’s foreign debt is forgiven in exchange for local investments in environmental conservation measures. Pictured: a Yellow Spotted River Turtle in Bolivia's Beni Biosphere Reserve, the location of the very first debt-for-nature swap, brokered by the non-profit Conservation International in 1987 (Open Cage)

The debt-for-nature swap concept, whereby a portion of a developing nation’s foreign debt is forgiven in exchange for local investments in environmental conservation measures, dates back to the mid-1980s when Thomas Lovejoy of the non-profit World Wildlife Fund (WWF) first proposed it as a way to deal with the problems of developing nations’ indebtedness and the negative consequences for their natural resources and diverse environments.

The theory goes that if a country with, say, valuable tropical rainforests, is up to its ears in debt, it will sell off or otherwise deplete those natural resources, instead of protecting or conserving them, in order to raise the money needed to pay off its debts. Debt-for-nature swaps can therefore be useful financial mechanisms for helping countries reduce debt without destroying their most valuable natural resources.

Since the first swap was brokered with Bolivia (to protect its Beni Biosphere Reserve and adjacent areas) by the non-profit Conservation International in 1987, many national governments and conservation groups have engaged in similar types of debt-for-nature swap negotiations, especially in tropical countries which contain diverse and threatened species of flora and fauna. Costa Rica has exchanged tens of millions of dollars in debt to protect some of its most pristine and biologically productive rainforests.

In 1998 the U.S. government passed the Tropical Forest Conservation Act to codify debt-for-nature swaps, including formally welcoming non-profit groups like Conservation International, the Nature Conservancy, WWF and others to help arrange the deals and oversee implementation of local initiatives. A 2010 Congressional Research Service report found that since 1987, debt-for-nature swaps have channeled upwards of $1 billion toward tropical forest conservation initiatives instead of back into creditor nations’ coffers.

But far fewer deals are occurring today for a number of reasons. For one, says the Congressional Research Service, other agreements for debt restructuring and cancellation have reduced developing nations’ debt by significantly more than debt-for-nature swaps can. Another is that the concept has fallen somewhat out of favor. Some experts argue that the financial benefits are overstated, that funds are misdirected to less needy countries, that external debt is not a primary driver of deforestation and other environmental ills, and that funding does not necessarily equate to effective implementation of conservation strategies.

Criticism aside, some deals are still getting done. In 2008, France forgave $20 million in debt owed by Madagascar to help the biodiversity-rich nation triple the size of its protected areas to better protect its native flora and fauna. In 2010, the U.S. forgave $21 million in Brazilian debt to fund several ecosystem protection initiatives in Brazil’s still vanishing tropical rainforests. The U.S. has also forgiven debt from the Philippines, Guatemala and Peru in recent years in exchange for on-the-ground conservation efforts. Germany and the Netherlands have each forgiven some of their foreign debt to tropical nations for forest protection as well. So while debt-for-nature swaps are not as popular as they once were, they are still a key tool in the toolbox of environmentalists looking to promote conservation in tropical countries.

CONTACTS: WWF, www.wwf.org; Conservation International, www.conservation.org
The Nature Conservancy, www.nature.org.

Despite first being an entirely mathematical concept, fractal patterns can show up in nature too.

This past week, Benoit Mandelbrot, the father of fractal geometry, passed away in Cambridge.

Born in Poland, the French-American mathematician grew up and studied in France, eventually becoming a dual-citizen. He taught and worked at many schools in the two countries, including time as a visiting professor at Harvard.

Mandelbrot is best known for pioneering the mathematical field devoted to describing fractals. Fractals are geometric patterns that grow more complex as they are observed more closely. Imagine a triangle. Now draw a triangle inside that triangle. Repeat it, again, and again. This design could go on forever, yet it is all encompassed in the defined area of the first triangle.

Mandelbrot’s work has engendered widespread applications in diverse fields, from biology to economics. For example, his work has enabled development of mathematical models for cliffs, coastlines, and capillary beds.

Mandelbrot also brought math to the layperson, publishing a seminal book, The Fractal Geometry of Nature in 1982. Despite being full of symbols and equations, even the non-mathematician could understand the point that Mandelbrot communicated for most of his life: even the rough and irregular is part of nature and can be beautiful.

It can hardly be called a new development or a scientific breakthrough; in fact, it’s been around for millennia. Nearly 2000 years ago, farmers in the Amazon basin used it to create terra preta, once regaled by explorers as the most fertile and beautiful of foamy, luscious soil.

Yes, it’s what we now call biochar and it’s been gaining popularity in the scientific community for years. Recently, it was brought back into international spotlight as Britain’s government commissioned a study on biochar’s potential, and the US released a study saying that widespread use of the additive could result in a 12 per cent drop in global greenhouse emissions.

The product is quite simple. It’s a charcoal-like soil additive that consists of cooked biowastes, like wood chips and animal manure. When it’s added to soil, the carbon dioxide released from plants is locked up for thousands of years, instead of being released into our environment. The soil is pitch black as a result of the high concentration of carbon, and is much more fertile.

According to an article in a 2006 issue of Nature, "terra preta contrasts strongly with normal soil and in colour and produces much more vigorous crops."

If further studies come back with positive results, the only thing left to determine would be whether creating terra preta would release more emissions than would be saved by its use. Many scientists argue that exact point, outlined in a letter sent last year by environmental groups to various policy makers. Of course, that would make biochar more of a problem than a solution.

However, according to the same 2006 Nature article, "a hectare of metre-deep terra preta can contain 250 tonnes of carbon, as opposed to 100 tonnes in unimproved soils…The extra carbon is not just in the char — it’s also in the organic carbon and enhanced bacterial biomass that the char sustains." The scientist who conducted these trials, Bruno Glaser, as well as his colleagues in the industry, feel that carbon-friendly ways of production can and should be discovered, so the world can reap biochar’s potential.

Many scientists remain skeptical, but if the products ends up being all it’s expected to be, it will decrease the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere and help produce crops in soils that were previously polluted and lacking proper nutrients.

If biochar’s use can somehow be implemented in farms in our world’s more under-developed areas, it could prove to be a literal live saver. In the same Nature article, the author cites the remarkable results of a biochar vs. regular soil trial.

"Bruno Glaser…estimates that productivity of crops in terra preta is twice that of crops grown in nearby soils."

Further studies will determine whether biochar can be produced in low-emission methods. If it can, the result would be a simple, natural product that can potentially reduce emissions and increase food production in the forgotten and ignored corners of our world.

Two of today’s biggest social, moral and political issues — global warming and hunger — could be partially reversed because of innovations by Amazon tribes thousands of years ago.

For more information, go to http://biocharfund.org/

This article was also published at http://hunger-undernutrition.org.

A plover chick. (Media credit/The Massachusetts Audubon Society)

DUXBURY — For someone with no experience bird-watching, it may seem like an uneventful way to spend an afternoon. However, my two summers as a bird monitor at Duxbury Beach on the South Shore showed me otherwise. I spent my days observing and recording the habits of the threatened piping plovers.

After a couple of weeks observing the plovers, I began to notice the many birding groups that frequented the beach. They intently observed the natural world that other beachgoers seemed to take for granted. My job as a bird monitor required the same intense observation. Because of the plovers’ small size and ability to blend in with their surroundings, I would sometimes spend hours just looking for movement in the sand. Then, when I finally lifted the binoculars to my eyes and saw their fluffy cotton ball-sized bodies, I felt a great sense of pride and accomplishment. I was witnessing something that most people don’t see.

According to an email interview with Lee Schlesinger, an associate professor of literature at The State University of New York at Purchase, and an avid birder since the late ’60s,”birding is in part a way of seeing.” He finds “that birding makes (him) more attentive, observant, and alert.” That is one of the greatest joys of birding; it offers a glimpse into the natural world that we so often overlook.

Gear

For those of you wishing to seek entry into the eye-opening world of birding, you must first arm yourself with the right equipment. A good pair of binoculars is essential to learning the basics of birding. Because the price of binoculars can range from $100 to $1000, Schlesinger recommends going to a store that carries binoculars and telling the clerk how much you are willing to spend. The clerk will then be able to show you what the store carries that suits your budget. He urges first-time buyers to test out the binoculars to see which models work best for them. “[Look for] clarity of image, truth of color, good feel in the hand, and [whether they are] light enough and easy to adjust,” he says.

Once you have your binoculars hanging comfortably around your neck, it’s time to buy a field guide. These are books with illustrations of different bird species and tips for identifying them. There are numerous guides to choose from, but one of the most popular is The Sibley Guide to Birds. Among longtime birders, David Allen Sibley’s guides are the most highly recommended. “[Sibley's] books are excellent, informed by current information and research, well laid-out, and attractive,” comments Schlesinger. He encourages beginners to purchase the field guide, which is small enough to carry in a large pocket. However, Schlesinger also recommends shopping around, as there are many different guides available that cater to specific birding interests. One appealing aspect of birding is that it is a relatively low-cost hobby. Schlesinger points out that another way to keep costs down is to remember, “libraries are also good resources. One might not be able to afford so many books, but checking them out of the library is an easy alternative.”

Where and When

With field guide and binoculars in hand you are ready to head out on your birding excursion. The Massachusetts coast is littered with scenic places teeming with avian wildlife. “Duxbury is probably one of the best, especially because there is a variety of shorebird and other bird species using the beach year-round,” says Becky Harris, director of the Mass Audubon Society’s Coastal Waterbird Program. She recommends visiting the beach in the late summer or early fall, as that is when the birds are resting and foraging in preparation for their migration south. Harris also suggests a couple of sites in the Greater Boston area, such as Winthrop Beach. She notes “Winthrop is especially good for migratory shorebirds later in the summer, and also has an American Oystercatcher pair that nests on the south end of the beach from March through August.” The raven birds, with their bright red bills, are not to be missed. According to Harris, the Boston Harbor Islands can be a great place to see heronries, the breeding grounds for “nesting wading birds such as the Glossy Ibis, Snowy Egret, Great Egret, and Black-crowned Night Heron.” And birding doesn’t have to leave you stranded on the shore. “These birds are visible from kayaks around islands such as Sarah Island in Hingham Harbor,” says Harris. She suggests that May through July is the best time for such an island excursion.

Schlesinger highlights that the beaches on Cape Cod are great places to see birds that stay out over the water, specifically First Encounter Beach, the National Seashore beaches, and the Wellfleet Bay Wildlife Sanctuary. He is partial to Cape Ann and other spots north of Boston, like Crane Beach in Ipswich and Plum Island in Newburyport. But, he  says, even more urban beaches in Revere and Plymouth can be worth a birding visit. It is always important to keep in mind that no place should ever be completely off the list of birding possibilities. “A surprise bird in your backyard is as exciting as a standard list of birds from a more distant place,” says Schlesinger. So remember to always keep your eyes open, no matter where you are.

In the Field

Before you head out on your first birding trip, it is important to adjust your binoculars. “It is harder than you think to fix things in your field of vision,” says Schlesinger. “It is especially hard to fix things in your field of vision when those things fly, which often means fly away,” he adds.

Once you are actually out in the field, stop for a minute, close your eyes, and listen. What do you hear? According to Schlesinger, paying attention to any sounds and call notes you may hear is key. “Experienced birders rely on hearing at least as much as sight, and probably more,” he says. “Hearing a bird alerts you to his presence and directs you where to look.” While you may be eager to use your pre-adjusted binoculars, listening to a bird’s call first will direct you exactly where to point them.

It is also important to take some time to record every bird that you see. Specific notes to jot down include the bird’s species, when and where you spotted the bird, whether the bird is male or female (if you can tell), and a note about what the bird’s call sounds like. Pete Thayer of www.wildbirds.com recommends that even if you are on vacation or enjoying a moment of leisure, recording bird sightings wherever and whenever you see them will help you to become a knowledgeable and experienced birder. Make sure to use your guide as a resource when identifying birds, and don’t be afraid to make mistakes. “Very experienced birders [make mistakes] also, and the birding list servers are full of discussions of identification issues,” says Schlesinger.

Perhaps most importantly, be sure to respect the birds. Be careful not to get too close to their habitat. Rather than approaching birds, let them come to you. This requires a great deal of patience, but it will make your discoveries all the more rewarding.

Joining the Community

Contacting local birding groups is a great way to learn more about your hobby and meet other enthusiasts. Both Schlesinger and Harris acknowledge the advantages of local birding clubs. “It always helps to tag along with someone who knows what they are doing,” says Harris. Mass Audubon offers a number of bird walks, hikes, and information sessions. If you live in the Boston area, The Brookline Bird Club, the largest and oldest bird club in Massachusetts, is open to anyone who is interested. And for South Shore dwellers, the South Shore Bird Club places an emphasis on day trips throughout the local area. Schlesinger points out that many experienced birders are, “helpful and generous with their time.” He admits that even experienced birders like himself, “love birding with beginners; the familiar birds that I barely look at anymore are new to them, and their excitement and interest encourage me to look more generously at those birds.”

For Schlesinger, birding has helped him to see the world in a new way. “Birding has taken me to places, wonderful and interesting places I might not have gone to otherwise, and has encouraged me to see familiar things at a different angle, to see things new and oddly,” he says. The profound influence birding has on its enthusiasts is such that they will travel hundreds of miles to see a rare species. But perhaps even more meaningful, is the fact that this hobby causes them to look at familiar surroundings, such as their own backyards, in a completely new light. What at first appears to be a boring way to spend an afternoon becomes a transformative experience. “Birding has made me attentive to a world full of stuff,” says Schlesinger. “A lot of it (is) alive and vibrant and weird and interesting and often beautiful.”

With Christmas behind us and New Years upon us, now would be a good time to learn from holiday travel mistakes and not let the past repeat itself next year. Traveling at this time of year is always hectic — it should come as no surprise. Yet, somehow every year, thousands of people find themselves stranded or stressed out needlessly. There are three major mistakes that, if avoided, could remedy holiday headaches for everyone.

1. Underestimating Mother Nature.

Even if there’s no inclement weather canceling flights at the airport you’re departing from – flight cancellations always create an elaborate domino effect that can delay perfectly unrelated climates. Of course, this year no one was safe since Hell apparently froze over and snow even whitened Las Vegas and L.A. Arriving with plenty of time and knowing your options for wait lists and flight changes won’t always mean you’ll have trouble-free travel, but it’s the easiest way to help ensure you’ll get where you need to go.

2. Not Keeping the Kids Entertained.

What, you didn’t notice the tiny little punches at the back of your seat accompanied with “Are we there yet?”s and desperate cries to go home? Sure, not all kids are tough to travel with, but if you’ve got a full car or a long flight, you’ll be saving your sanity (not to mention all the people surrounding you) if you make sure to bring plenty of things to keep the kids entertained. There are a ton of easy solutions here: coloring books, crayons, books, etc. Thanks to technology, there are loads of even more effective tools, such as handheld DVD players, iPods, and the Nintendo DS. Now, if you’re lucky enough to be on an airline that provides it, wireless networking technology from D-Link allows air travelers to enjoy digEcor’s portable, lightweight in-flight entertainment players that provide passengers with a wide selection of movies, TV shows, music and games. With all of these gadgets, however, don’t forget to bring enough headphones and batteries to last you.

3. Not Understanding Travelers Insurance Needs or Coverage.

According to a new national survey on travel insurance issued by Trusted Choice and the Independent Insurance Agents & Brokers of America (the Big “I”), millions of Americans have no clue when they might already be covered or where they might have gaps while on vacation. Big “I” President & CEO Robert A. Rusbuldt says ” The good news for consumers is that homeowner’s insurance policies may cover lost property, car insurance policies often offer the option of rental coverage, and medical policies usually have clauses that explain where and when you are covered”. Whether the airline loses luggage containing gifts, you’re renting a car, or doing daredevil ski jumps abroad, it’s going to help a great deal to know if you’re covered for any or all of these things beforehand.

So maybe while you’re toasting to the New Year (and then riding home with a designated driver‚ – don’t make another huge travel mistake) you might make a resolution to help yourself and all other travelers in the coming seasons by learning from your, and everyone else’s, travel mistakes.

This was the first article ever written in Blast Magazine and was part of the 1/1/07 launch.

In his youth, James Crotty may have qualified for the title of Youngest Professional Photographer in Dayton, Ohio.

A shy personality in a family of extroverts, he discovered his passion once he started messing around with a 35mm camera his father brought home one day when he was 10 or 11.

“That was my escape,” he explained. “I was more quiet, introverted, and more aware of my natural surroundings. It was a way for me to go out and explore nature.”

At 13, Crotty had already set up a makeshift darkroom in the basement of his parents’ house, where he developed the photographs he regularly took around the neighborhood and in the wooded area around his home. When he entered high school, he got a job working in a local frame shop. He talked the owner into displaying some of his photographs, and people started buying them.

“I started seeing that people were responding to what I was creating,” he said.

And they’re still responding.

In September, the 42-year-old was awarded a first place prize in National Wildlife magazine’s annual Photography Awards, in the category of New Life. The winning picture, which was published in the December/January 2007 issue of National Wildlife, was an image he snapped in May of two young house finches nesting.

The photo was also chosen by Nature’s Best Photography magazine to be displayed as part of an exhibit at the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, D.C. through April.

Every spring, Crotty said, the birds build a nest beneath hanging ferns on his front porch. This year, after two days of anxious waiting, the eggs hatched. The hatchlings were less than an inch long in their early days, Crotty said.

“I started seeing if I could get a really good shot of them,” he explained. “I kind of know when the babies are the most photogenic, the most interesting. They’ve got this otherworldly look to them; they almost look like Muppets. It only lasts a few days because they grow so quickly.”

Crotty said he was able to get off a series of shots with his 35mm macro lens camera and hand-held flash before the birds ducked back into their nest, realizing they would not be fed.

“It’s just a very brief moment to get them up when they’re looking at the camera,” he said. “The whole look of new life–it’s just something I wanted to capture and I happened to hit it at just the right time.” The birds were only days old at the time the picture was taken, and the fact that their eyes had not yet opened would normally be detrimental to a wildlife photograph. But not in this case.

“Most wildlife photographs are so engaging when the photographer is able to capture the animal’s personality through their eyes,” Crotty explained. “What’s interesting about this one is their eyes are closed, but you can still tell so much about what these birds are going through and the challenge of being so new in the world and so dependent on their parents. [Their wide-open mouths] kind of take the place of the eyes.”

According to Crotty, the photo started generating buzz as soon as he posted it in an online album on Flickr. Complete strangers began marking it as one of their Favorites.

“That one just took off,” he said. “It got a huge amount of hits. I kind of had a hint that it was a good image when I saw that… It was an image that really caught people’s attention.”

After he came across the National Wildlife photography contest online in August, Crotty decided to enter the photograph on a whim.